Alessandro Allori’s journey as an artist, emerging from tragic circumstances to become a pivotal figure in the late Renaissance period in Florence, is a tale of resilience, artistic innovation, and technical proficiency. The story of Allori is not just about individual genius, but about the rich and complex cultural milieu of Renaissance Florence, a crucible of artistic talent and innovation.

Born in 1535, Alessandro Allori was orphaned at the age of five. Bronzino, who was a close friend of Allori’s father, took the young Alessandro under his wing, providing him not only with a home but also an artistic education that would shape his future. Bronzino, who often referred to Allori as his nephew, favoured him above all other. Himself a disciple of Jacopo Pontormo, Bronzino was known for his elegant portraits and religious works that combined precise draughtsmanship with a somewhat chilly elegance and stylization characteristic of Mannerism. Under his meticulous guidance, Allori will learn the importance of anatomical precision, a skill that would become a hallmark of his own works.

Allori thus infused his mentor’s style with his own sensibilities. He developed a distinct sense of relief in his paintings, characterized by an enamelled colour palette that often portrayed a certain coldness, and an unusual lighting that lent an otherworldly, almost surreal quality to his works. To honour his mentor and adoptive father, Allori will integrate Bronzino’s name into his own signature, continuing the practice even after his master’s death.

Signature / ©RES

The 1580s were a significant period in Allori’s career. During this time, he began to oversee a large workshop, a testament to his growing reputation. This period coincided with the passing of both Bronzino and Giorgio Vasari, leaving Allori as one of the leading figures in the Florentine art scene. It was also during the 1580s that the motif of the deceased Christ became a recurring theme in Allori’s work. This was reflective of the religious and cultural atmosphere of the Counter-Reformation, a period marked by a resurgence of religious art aimed at inspiring devotion and adherence to the Catholic faith. In this context, Allori’s depiction of Christ and religious figures took on a profound emotional and spiritual depth.

Infrared reflectography / ©RES

One of Allori’s notable works from this period is the painting in Chantilly, which depicts an angel showing Saint Francis of Assisi the body of Christ shortly after deposition from the cross. This painting is a quintessential example of Allori’s skill in combining intricate detail with profound emotional expression. The figure of Saint Francis, depicted in a state of rapturous connection with the divine, is a powerful representation of the spiritual fervour that characterized the Counter-Reformation.

In this painting, the anatomical representation of Christ is particularly noteworthy. Allori’s deep understanding of anatomy, honed under Bronzino’s tutelage, is evident in the lifelike portrayal of Christ’s figure. The attention to detail is further exemplified in the intricate embroidery of the velvet cushion, which adds a rich texture to the composition.

Underlying drawing / ©RES

The use of infrared reflectography has provided fascinating insights into the artist’s process, revealing the presence of a detailed preparatory drawing underneath the paint, executed freehand using charcoal. This preparatory layer shows significant pentimenti in the composition, particularly in the positioning and details of Christ’s face, arms, and legs.

Furthermore, infrared analysis has brought to light modifications in the angel’s wings and in the hands of Saint Francis, suggesting a dynamic and evolving creative vision. Interestingly, Allori’s signature was also revealed, adding another layer of understanding to this remarkable work.

Allori’s work, particularly in the latter part of his career, reflects a deep engagement with the religious and cultural shifts of his time, marrying technical excellence with a profound emotional and spiritual resonance. His unique visual language, characterized by anatomical precision and a striking, almost ethereal use of light and colour, marks him as a significant figure in the transition from Mannerism to the early Baroque.

The insights gleaned from infrared reflectography not only enhance our understanding of Allori’s creative process but also illustrate the evolving nature of artistic creation, where each layer of paint and each altered line tells a story of decision and revision. Alessandro Allori’s legacy not only lies in his artworks but in his approach to art as a dynamic and evolving practice. His contributions to the Florentine art scene, his ability to adapt and grow within the rapidly changing artistic milieu of the late Renaissance, as well as his influence on subsequent generations of artists cement his place as a pivotal figure in art history.

Based on the false-color infrared (FCIR) image of the paint layer, we can assume that the sky and the drapery are painted with lapis lazuli (appearing pink in the FCIR image).

The support on which Christ is laid and the details of the blue drapery seem to contain a natural red lacquer (a pigment that appears orange in the FCIR image). There are also earths, lead white, and green lacquers present. The palette is relatively limited, but the colors are applied quite purely, as is the case with lapis lazuli.

Infrared reflectography false color / ©RES

Alessandro Allori, An Angel Shows Saint Francis of Assisi the Christ Detached from the Cross, 1583, oil on panel, Château de Chantilly – Musée Condé.

The Silver Pagoda is an impressively ornate structure, also known as Wat Preah Keo, or ‘Temple of the Emerald Buddha’, located inside the Royal Palace of Phnom Penh. Originally built as a wooden construction in 1892 under King Norodom, it was rebuilt in its current state in 1962. It stands inside a large, enclosed complex, surrounded by a painted gallery on all four sides with a dominant canopy at the top and a sloping roof, forming a cloister.

The murals in the galleries of the Silver Pagoda date from 1902-1903. They were executed by the painter and architect Oknha Tep Nimit Thak, assisted by painter Vichitre Chea and a team of 40 students, thus making it very difficult to correctly attribute the different parts of these works.

Oknha Tep Nimit Mak was the painter and master builder of the Palace at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. We owe to this master and his workshop the paintings of the great monasteries of this period: the sanctuary and cloister of Wat Prah Keo Morokot, Wat Phnom Delmayed, Wat Phnom Del in Kompong Cham province and Vat Sisowath Ratanaram in the South of Kandal Province.

The courtyard, surrounded by galleries, has the shape of a rectangle of 150 m by 170 m, the murals occupy the entire surface of the walls, they are 3.50 meters high and 604 meters long, making them the largest wall paintings in Southeast Asia. Starting on the Eastern wall, near the entrance door, and proceeding in a clockwise direction (pradaksimâ), 192 scenes representing the Reamker, the Khmer version of the classic Indian epic Rāmāyaṇa, depict the battle between the army of Preah Ram (Rama) to rescue his wife Neang Seda kidnapped by Krong Rab (Ravana).

In this enclosure of traditional art, one can see the whole Rama story unfold, from the moment when Preah Ram accompanied by Preah Laks goes to perfect his knowledge with the ascetic Visvamitr to the end when Preah Ram and Neang Seda are reconciled and receive the visit of Preah Bhirut and Sutrut. Almost all the most important episodes are represented:

• The trial of the bow at King Janak’s house
• Preah Ram and Neang Seda in Ayodhya – Departure from Ayodhya – Exile – Encounters with Kukhan and Munis.
• Mutilation of Neang Surpanakhar, Rab’s sister – Battle with Krong Khar – the golden gazelle, Seda’s abduction
• Battles with Rab’s allies – Battle of Kumbhakar-Battle of Indrajit – Battle of Rab.
• Victory of Preah Ram – Consecration of Bibhek – Seda’s fire ordinance
• Return to Ayodhya, coronation of Preah Ram
• Portait of Rab – condemnation of Seda – his exile
• Ramlaks and Jupalaks – the horse trial
• Preah Ram, Neang Seta and the two children – their meeting
• Preah Ram and the ordeal with the funeral urn. Seda among the Nagas
• Wars of Rab’s children and nephews
• Reconciliation of the heroes.

No frame, no division, not even a stripe, separates the scenes. The transitions between two episodes are made in an elegant, more elaborate way, by a grove, a group of rocks or, simply, by the attitude of characters directing their attention towards specific elements of the scene. Except for a few flashbacks, the story is laid out in a chronological order, with succinct inscriptions in Khmer describing the action.

These paintings, so precious, bear witness to the enduring artistic sense of the Khmer people. They present a particularly rich iconography, preserving a very lively Khmer life with religious and royal celebrations, as well as scene of popular life, in an oneiric atmosphere of poetry.

For the first time in their history, the painted murals of the Silver Pagoda were studied extensively through several non-invasive analyses, including infrared reflectography images (IR) acquired with Opus Instruments’s Osiris camera, allowing for the study of the work’s genesis and underlying layers.

As a general rule and at that time (early 20th century), Cambodian artists expressed themselves through an essentially linear drawing: to represent and signify. On the Silver Pagoda’s surrounding walls, and as was the case in Cambodia during this period, the technique excludes any perspective representation or any use of trompe-l’oeil. The drawing is linear, the lines and the curves are clear and defined. There is also an absence of perspective: the writing is simple and is intended to be as exact and faithful as possible to the Ramkear text.

As stated earlier, Oknha Tep Nimit Mak is one of the artists who worked on the Silver Pagoda. It is also known that he produced drawings of statues, decorative motifs, mythological characters, costumes… . In 1923, George Groslier collected seventy-six drawings by Oknha Tep Nimit Mak; although the position of the figure and some details differ, the similarities between the drawings and the characters in the Silver Pagoda are obvious and seem to stem from the same idea. We can therefore assume that the artists used a model or cardboard of some kind, as underlined by the strong and precise lines.

The underlying drawings of the Silver Pagoda are very rich and bear witness to the artist’s vision and creative process at the time of painting. Reflectography has revealed adjustments to the composition made by the artist during the painted phase.

The most repainted part (eastern wall) underwent the most modifications and changes: the architecture, decorations and characters have been simplified; the lines are less delicate, some characters are repositioned or simply created new. This tells us that a new group of artists worked on this part of the wall after the completion of the project or after the damage that the original painting may have suffered.

On the whole composition we observe:

• Numerous compositional changes in the architecture;
• Removal of some characters: some characters or groups of characters disappear in the painted phase, especially on the repainted part where the modifications are the most obvious;

• Slight displacements, especially for characters and animals: adjustment of the positions of figures – feet position, arms position, architectural details, etc;

• Squaring: to place groups of characters (often duos);

• Drawing of lines for inscriptions.

Reflectography also allowed us to determine the missing drawing on the very damaged areas of the mural. Indeed, some parts have been altered by time, environment, weather changes and deliberate damage by visitors. The reflectography thus allow to better understand the scenes represented.

The artist used a mixed technique: most of the lines are made with dry materiel, they are strong and precise; but some elements, such as vegetation, stones, or rivers/sea seem to have been made with a more fluid material.

The analysis in false color, traditionally performed using color films with extended sensitivity in the near-infrared region, is now more conveniently achievable with digital techniques using a modern camera. The advantage lies in the speed of acquiring infrared analysis in false colors, and moreover, the near-infrared sensitivity of silicon detectors extends to longer wavelengths compared to color film.

An example can be found on the west wall in the scene depicting the battle between Rama and Krong Rab (scene 118), where false-color images reveal an area affected by previous restoration interventions. In particular, from false color, the presence of overlaid malachite can be identified  on the original layer of ultramarine representing the sky.

What appears to us in direct light photography as a compact layer of bright blue differentiates into two overlapping layers in false color, which can be perfectly distinguishable from each other thanks to the characteristic responses of the two different pigments.

Equally useful can be the identification of pigments that have deteriorated over time. In the north wall, in the scene where Asakan gathers his troops against Rama (scene 132), the pigment has deteriorated. In false color, the area inside the temple is rendered in red, while it appears dark brown in direct light.

It is characteristic of blue pigments to have a red response in false color, and enamel is a pigment prone to such degradation. Its tendency to degrade, darkening towards gray-brown tones, is scientifically recognized.

The purpose of studying this still life was to identify the materials present as well as their application in order to contextualize and compare them to Cézanne’s technique.

The white pigment was first analysed to exclude the presence of titanium white, which would have been contradictory to the supposed period of the work. Subsequently, high-definition scientific imaging was conducted on the front and back of the painting: direct light, raking light, ultraviolet, infrared reflectography, Dinolite microscope and radiography.

This still life depicts a table on which apples, a knife, a loaf of bread, a carafe, a bottle of wine, and a pot containing flowers are placed. In the background, two wooden chairs can be vaguely seen.

The visible surface is directly painted on the canvas without any preparation, which is not usual in Cézanne’s practice. In fact, the autograph works studied in parallel are all prepared.

A luggage label from the Gare d’Orsay was found affixed to the internal edge of the frame. Since the station was in operation from 1900 to 1939, it is likely that the frame was made during this period or prior to these dates.

Infrared reflectography provides limited information about the execution technique. The drawing is not clearly identifiable. When present, it is scarcely discernible in reflectography, either because of the material used (invisible due to infrared transparency) or the thickness of the layers. However, some construction elements can be observed, such as on the knife in the foreground, the loaf of bread, or even the slight change in composition at the lower right corner of the table.

The painting was executed in two distinct stages, with subsequent adjustments made to the foreground. Although these two phases are distinguishable in direct light, the exact chronology was confirmed by ultraviolet imaging, which highlighted the difference in fluorescence between the colored layers.

Thus, the greenish fluorescence allows for the identification of a varnish based on natural resin, covering the initial composition. The modifications, on the other hand, do not fluoresce or fluoresce very little and appear purplish. They mostly involve tonal nuances that do not alter the composition, except for the table, whose shape and position have changed.

The paint is applied, for the most part, with heavy strokes of color deposited using brushes of various sizes, or with a palette knife (as seen on the tablecloth and in the background). The material is sparingly diluted and thick: the paint strokes are juxtaposed while overlapping in some areas.

Color is sometimes applied ‘raw’ before being mixed directly on the canvas or on the brush, creating a distinctive effect on certain elements, such as the apples depicted with a multitude of hues.
This technique is not typical of Cézanne’s approach. In the latter’s works, the material is usually less impastoed, worked through juxtaposed and regular strokes that build volume with color and chromatic synthesis, sometimes playing with reserved areas of canvas.

While certain characteristics are found in the studied painting, the modeling is not achieved here through the juxtaposition of hues, but through highly thick and superimposed layers that emphasize the drawing. Other elements are rendered with a certain lack of finesse, such as the bottle or the flowerpot.

In Cézanne’s works, deliberate errors in perspective are often noticeable, with objects being painted independently of each other, following their own rules of perspective. This results in a tension that renders the composition unbalanced, where objects placed in the background sometimes appear to shift to the foreground or float in space. In the studied still life, the composition is quite static, the perspective is respected, and the planes are clearly identifiable.

Radiography revealed an underlying composition that is difficult to see under direct light and infrared reflectography: a portrait of a man appears to the left of the composition. Located on the reverse side of the canvas, this portrait was covered with a layer of paint to conceal it.

By dismantling the frame, other elements of the composition became clearly visible. They appear to be a man and a woman in the foreground within an interior. The portrait of the man could not be identified due to insufficient elements.

Unlike the front side, the reverse side of the canvas was prepared; the material is applied quite thickly with broad brushstrokes, shaping the background and the clothing while still wet. The woman’s dress corresponds to the colors used for the tablecloth on the visible side. It appears that the same artist painted both sides of the picture.

Despite the fact that no definitive conclusions can be drawn from the material information, as no elements are discriminative, it is unlikely that the work is by the hand of P. Cézanne. Indeed, despite the proven use of lead white and the label from Gare d’Orsay, which could correspond to the artist’s era, the technical elements align poorly with the master’s technique.

Anonymous, Still Life with Bread, Apples, and Flowers, 19th century, oil on canvas, private collection.

Born in Rome and trained in her father Orazio Gentileschi’s studio, Artemisia was strongly influenced by Caravaggio and the Baroque movement. She is known for her realistic, dramatic and often violent subject matter, as well as her preference for female and religious representations such as Mary Magdalene, Judith, Esther, etc.

In this painting, the artist depicts an episode from the Gospel according to John: at noon, Jesus, thirsty and tired by his journey through Samaria, was sitting by Jacob’s well, near the city of Sychar. He engages in a conversation with a Samaritan woman who had come to draw water from the well, offering to her “living water” that has the power to quenche anyone who drinks it.

Christ and the Samaritan are represented sitting at the well in full conversation, with the woman apparently paying particular attention to the words spoken by Jesus. Trees and architecture frame the scene, while a sky filled with heavy clouds encompasses a city in the distance, from which a group of men – probably the disciples – make their exit. This is one of the few works by Artemisia Gentileschi with a complete landscape.

The elements usually depicted in this scene are present: the well, the pitcher, the rope. The vivid colors of the characters’ clothing as well as the detailed background have been associated with the works the artist produced during her stay in Naples. Furthermore, in a letter written from Naples on 24^th November 1637, addressed to her patron, the papal secretary Cassiano dal Pozzo, Artemisia describes a painting of hers depicting “the Woman of Samaria with Christ and the twelve apostles in a distant landscape.”

A non-invasive scientific investigation campaign, conducted by RES, has allowed for a more in-depth analysis of the technical execution of this work.

In the case of this painting, infrared reflectography has not revealed the presence of a preparatory drawing of a carbonaceous nature made prior to the painting phase. However, the presence of such drawing cannot be definitively excluded as it could, in fact, have been made with chalk, sanguine, or another infrared “transparent” techniques.

Infrared imagery has, on the other hand, allowed for the identification of some modifications and adjustments to the composition made by the artist during the painted phase.

The reading of the image suggests that:

• the artist slightly repositioned Christ’s left hand as well as the Samaritan’s left arm;

• the draperies of Christ’s cloak underwent some minor changes;
• In the foliage of the tree at the top left, a ring can be seen hanging. In direct light, the ring is visible but difficult to distinguish;

• Finally, the visage of the Samaritan undergoes several changes: initially, her face appeared more profiled and stood higher; her eyes had a different position, suggesting a less angled head. There is a pentimento in her forehead: her hair originally fell more in front of her face.

Some parts of the painting appear more transparent; this is due to an alteration related to the aging of oil paint. This transparency allows for, in some cases, the observation of the chronological order in which the artist executed some elements of the painting.

The architectural contours, especially of the well, are visible in transparency as seen in Christ’s right sleeve: in all likelihood, Christ’s cloak was painted after the well was placed.

This alteration is also present on the left side of the painting, especially visible on the low stone and brick wall: a tree was placed by the artist after drawing and painting the wall. The bricks are particularly visible in transparency under direct light and on infrared reflectography.

The analysis of infrared reflectography has also led to another hypothesis: on the well, between Christ and the Samaritan, in the right sleeve of Christ, as well as in the tree’s foliage, large tears seem to be visible across the canvas. The first could be an old stitch, probably reworked by the artist herself.

The gaps in the paint layer are visible under infrared, with the stitching thread appearing white. The gaps would have been repainted (cracks are visible under raking light) and extensively revarnished (visible under ultraviolet light).

On the ultraviolet light image, a fairly recent retouching campaign (darker blue spots), is visible along the edges of the painting, on the well, on the left wall, as well as on the figures.

The examination of the false colour infrared suggests the use of the following pigments: vermilion for the cloak of Christ and the ribbon in the hair of the Samaritan woman; the blue drapery of Jesus appears to correspond to azurite, while a Naples yellow or orpiment was probably used for the dress of the Samaritan.

Artemisia Gentileschi, Christ and the Samaritan Woman at the Well, 1637, oil on canvas, Palazzo Blu – Pisa.

Daughter of an epoch enlightened by the Renaissance and marked by political and religious contrasts, Artemisia Gentileschi breathed creative atmosphere from childhood on, undergoing, through her father Orazio, the fascinating discipline of painting, coming to conceive her own, equally sublime technique.

With a vast amount of material at her disposal on which to test herself and perfecting her natural talent, Artemisia was shaped by Caravaggio’s work; an influence her father had already assimilated, having himself established relations of acquaintance with the master Michelangelo Merisi, of whom, it is said, he often bought bases for his own compositions.

In this way, his daughter developed a peculiar style that became a tightrope walk between dreamy abstraction and pragmatic realism; never lacking basic historical-artistic context, given Orazio’s predilection for paying attention to contemporary artistic movements. Always narrative dense works, Artemisia Gentileschi’s paintings depict episodes from Greek mythology, the biblical accounts of David and Bathsheba, Lot, Lucretia, as well as the repeated theme of Judith.

Mary Magdalene was a subject very much loved by artists and the public alike, because she represents the ideal model of the search for virtue and the renunciation of world pleasures. The protagonist is depicted full-length, wrapped into a golden yellow dress, generously covering her knees, enhanced by the contrasting colours of the tunic as well as the rough foot with dirty nails sticking out of the dress, making it the focal point of the viewer’s gaze. Seated in a moment of meditation and prayer, with flushed cheeks, Magdalene turns her visage to her left, at the moment of her transition: in the foreground, a skull rests on a book upon a rocky surface, symbolizing departure from a life of sin.

We note some striking similarities with Caravaggio’s Magdalene in Ecstasy, in the position and modelling of the hands, as well as in the apparition of the cross in the upper left part of the canvas. The scene takes place on some kind of rocky formation, as gentle waves caress the sea in the background.

The paint layer is executed on a homogeneous and relatively thick red-brown preparation over the entire surface, especially visible on the upper right part of the canvas because of increased transparencies caused by the ageing of the polymeric film. In the same area, a figure, which was originally not part of the final painting but rather from another, previous, composition, appears as a ghostly vision.

This phenomenon, coupled with infrared capture using our Apollo camera, have confirmed the presence of one or several other designs made before the one currently visible: when turned upside down, the canvas reveals what could possibly be a Saint Jerome, seated, holding some kind of book or object, surrounded by vegetation. On the lower part, some annotations made by the artist and some vandalism.

Artemisia evidently reused this already started canvas, as did many artists of the period, to save on materials.

Artemisia Gentileschi, Penitent Mary Magdalene, oil on canvas, private collection.

This painting by Raymond Quinsac Monvoisin, from the collections of the Musée des Beaux-Arts d’Orléans, depicts King Henry II of England with his favorite mistress, Rosamund Clifford.

Infrared reflectography, carried out with the Apollo camera reveals a very detailed layout of the entire composition as well as a squaring, suggesting careful preliminary study.

Executed using a drypoint, a perspective construction drawing of the architecture and the structure of the tiles can be clearly seen in the foreground. Some of the lines reveal the use of a compass, ruler or square, while others are executed freehand in the manner of a sketch with traces of trial and error.

The outlines of the figures are sketched with nervous, discontinuous lines, while the features of the faces seem to have been made with a brush, using a fluid material.

Several pentimenti are visible; with the most significant changes made to the scene in the background. The composition was initially closed on the right by a figure observing the scene. The first location of the body and head, hidden behind a balustrade and a column with a capital, is clearly visible. The artist then changed the composition by placing another figure in the background, in a three-quarter view and a more central position. In the background, architectures were arranged differently and replaced in the painted phase by a large green curtain.

It should also be noted that the decorations on the cushions on the left of the picture were not yet foreseen at the stage of the underlying drawing, while other ornamental patterns (such as on the back of the bench) were specified in detail. Minor changes are also visible in the orientation of Henry’s left hand and feet, as well as the right hand of Rosamund.

From the false colour infrared image (IRFC) of the paint layer, we can assume the presence of certain pigments: the blue cloak worn by Rosamund is made of natural azurite and lead white, in purplish on the IRFC image. Henry’s cloak is made of azurite, probably with added black. The red visible on Henry’s cushions and shoes is made with vermilion, a pigment that appears orange under false colour. A cooler madder lake is present in his red tunic, which presents a deeper orange response. The blue in the background is probably a layer of azurite. The large curtain also in the background appears to be made of verdigris. The legs and armrests of the benches are made using yellow ochre. The carpet in the foreground contains malachite with yellow added. The skin tones are made with a pink layer of vermilion and white.

Raymond Quinsac Monvoisin, Rosamund Clifford and King Henry II of England, 1827, oil on canvas, Musée des Beaux-Arts d’Orléans.

This portrait depicts artist’s father posing before an official portrait of Zhu De, an early revolutionary thought to be the China’s Red Army’s founder.

Prior to its conservation the work was examined to gather as much information as possible regarding its physical history. Some technical elements raised interest, as they did not seem to relate to the visible composition.

Thus, it was decided to use infrared reflectography to look beyond the visible layers of paint. By using the infrared spectrum, conservators and scientists are able to study an image deeper through its layer, and study characteristics such as underdrawings or pigments used.

Using the Osiris camera, infrared images of the painting were taken. Also called reflectograms, the images revealed the presence of a former composition underneath the current one. A portrait of a woman is clearly visible and had been almost fully executed before the artist decided to change the subject of his painting.

Artists are known for re-using canvasses, whether of their own or of others. Being aware of such a compositional change allows conservators to further the understanding of the technical practices of a particular painter or group of artists. It is also a crucial tool for a conservation treatment rationale. The presence of many layers of paint, varying in thickness and nature, such as in the present work, will affect the decisions made and materials chosen to conduct interventions.

Liu Wei, Revolutionary family series, 1991, mixed media on canvas, private collection.

The Triptych of the Virgin in Glory was commissioned by Pierre II of Bourbon and his wife Anne de Beaujeu between 1500 and 1501 to adorn the chapel of the Cathedral of Moulins.

Attribution of the triptych was discussed at length, but we can now attribute the work with almost complete certainty to the hand of Jean Hey.

The central panel shows the Virgin on a throne surrounded by angels while holding the Child on her knees. In the upper part, two angels carry a crown of stars above the head of the Virgin while six others, three on each side of the throne, look at her. In the lower part two angels hold a Latin inscription from Revelation XII “Hec est illa deqva sacra canvnt evlogia sole amicta lvnam habens svb pedibz stelis mervit coronari dvodenis”, which can be roughly translated as “This is the one praised in the Holy Scriptures: enveloped in the sun, having the moon under her feet, she deserved to be crowned with twelve stars”. The Virgin is dressed in a heavy red mantle, typical of the Flemish Virgins, anticipating the Passion of Christ.

The left panel represents Pierre II with Saint Peter. The latter wears a cape adorned with embroidery and a tiara of rounded cabochons, transparent jewels and palmettes. Pierre II is kneeling in the foreground; he wears a red cloak and a tiara.

On the right panel, we see Anne de Beaujeu and her daughter Suzanne in prayer, accompanied by Saint Anne. Anne and Suzanne’s clothes are very rich, while Saint Anne wears a much more sober outfit.

The underlying drawing of the Moulins triptych, very rich and complex, is a testimony to Jean Hey’s creative process.

In general, we note that the drawing varies according to the importance or the function of the element represented. On the left panel, the difference in treatment is very clear between Saint Peter and Pierre II of Bourbon. The latter is drawn with fairly fine and precise lines in charcoal or dry material, animated by a concern towards a faithful resemblance to the Duke. The hatching is subtle and suggests modelling. The features of Saint Peter, on the other hand, are more schematic; the design is done with a brush/pen with little indication of volumes, the artist not being held to the concern of resemblance.

This is also valid for the schematic figures of the angels and of the Virgin in the central panel. Their design testifies to the reuse of workshop patterns/models, a common practice of the time. Although their positions differ, the similarities between the angels on the different panels seem to stem from the same idea. Comparisons with the Hey’s other paintings seem to confirm this.

In both panels, the faces of the donors appear to have been the subject of a precise preparatory drawing for the sake of realism. No pentimenti are observed in relation to the painted execution.

The face of Pierre II of Bourbon can be compared to the painting in the Louvre, Pierre II of Bourbon, presented by St Pierre, a portrait very similar in multiple ways: positioning, expression and haircut.

In the right panel, pentimenti are visible in the busts and arms of Anne and Suzanne. For the latter, the artist changed their position several times. There is also an important pentimento in the drapery of Saint Anne.

The infrared imagery system shows the predominant place of the underlying drawing in the final execution. The drawing deliberately shines under the coloured layers, particularly on the central panel, modelling the shadows in the painted phase. A striking example of it is the Child’s eyebrows in the central panel as well as the face of the angel at the left of the Virgin.

False colour infrared reflectography suggests the use of the following pigments: lead white, vermilion, cupric acetate or resinate. Microscopic observation reveals Saint Anne’s cloak and the Virgin’s cloak were painted with lapis lazuli, a very expensive pigment which underlines the importance of this commission.

Jean Hey, The Triptych of the Virgin in Glory, 1500-1501, oil on pannel, Moulins Cathedral.

This painting was completed in 1834, following a state commission at the request of Monseigneur de Vichy. Large in dimensions (4m x 3.40m), The Martyrdom of Saint Symphorien is the result of a long preparatory work of which more than two hundred preliminary drawings are preserved. The iconography was dictated by Monseigneur de Vichy and represents a local Saint: Symphorien d’Autun, sentenced to death around 179 AD for mocking a pagan procession, beheaded in front of his mother outside the city walls.

Infrared reflectography allows us to study the preparatory drawing made by the artist with a dry technique. Despite the absence of a carryover grid, it seems likely, given the dimensions of the work, the complexity of the composition and the number of preparatory sketches, that Ingres used a transfer technique, such as a tracing paper.

While the general outline is quite precise, many pentimenti are visible, especially changes in the positions of hands, feet, arms and even faces of certain characters. Interestingly, the artist also noted colour indications, such as the word “jaune” (yellow) on the veil of the mother.

The artist also used tracing tools such as a compass or a ruler for the architecture, the soldier’s spears and the Saint’s halo.

Thus, the reflectography highlights the construction of the painting. We notice that Ingres paints the entire underlying element, the structure in a way, before painting the overlying object. For example, regarding the clothes of Symphorien, the dress is painted entirely before being covered by the drape of the tunic. Likewise, the architecture of the ramparts is painted before the tower.

False colour infrared imaging provides us with additional information: each pigment is represented by a particular coloration which depends on the interaction with infrared radiation, thus refining our knowledge of the painter’s technique. We notice that the sky, as well as the tunic of the soldier holding the signum, are composed of an azurite base with highlights of lapis lazuli. The reds (appearing yellow in false colors) are made with vermilion. The green mantle of the soldier carrying the fascio is a copper-based pigment (blue in false colors); other greens appear pink, that is to say a mixture of blue (lapis-lazuli?) with a yellow (lead and pewter?). For the rest of the composition, the palette is reduced to earths, ochres, lead white and carbon black.

Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, Le Martyre de Saint Symphorien, 1834, oil on canvas, Saint-Lazare Cathedral – Autun.

Caravaggio, whose life of transgressions often prevails over the artistic aspect of his existence, is regarded by many as the artist who captured in the subtlest way the modernity of his time. Mysterious character, still not fully known to us because of a lack of direct evidence, heirless, all we have are a few writings of his not always benevolent contemporaries. Caravaggio powerfully transmits the contradictions of a modern man with its many facets, permanently interested in making his popular soul coexist with his social growth through his acquaintances with prestigious patrons, such as Cardinal Del Monte, the Marquis Giustiniani and the Colonna princes.

These elements often clash with the circles of clerical orthodoxy, which finds his choice of popular connotations irreverent to be portrayed in religious subject.

Pursuing forgiveness for the murder of Tomassoni and therefore pardon from capital punishment and the end of exile, he leaves Naples for the Papal States, convinced by his intercessors that he can obtain indulgence. What happens next is the subject of much confusion and conjecture. He dies in 1610 in Porto Ercole, alone and miserable, hastily buried in a mass grave. Loved and celebrated in life, he is quickly forgotten, only to be rediscovered in the twentieth century.

Defined by Roberto Longhi as a “painter of reality”, his work is characterized by a direct observation of nature. Through the many contradictions of his modernity, he is the first interpreter of what will become modern painting.

When Caravaggio dies, the bishop of Caserta writes to Cardinal Scipione Borghese, collector and protector of Caravaggio, informing him of the disappearance of the artist. He mentions three paintings, found inside the boat on which he was traveling: “Doi S. Giovanni e la Maddalena” (Two S. Johns and the Magdalene).

While many copies of the Magdalene in Exctasy are known to this day, this version, authenticated in 2014 by Mina Gregori, is considered the true original; the painting he had with him on his last journey to Porto Ercole. On the back of the canvas, a note with seventeenth-century handwriting was found: “Madalena reversa di Caravaggio a Chiaia ivi da servare pel beneficio del Cardinale Borghese di Roma” (Magdalene on her back by Caravaggio in Chiaia to serve for the benefit of Cardinal Borghese of Rome)

Mary Magdalene is a repetitive presence in Caravaggio’s work, whose tumultuous life is marked by desperate attempts to find forgiveness for his crimes.

Magdalene appears on a neutral background wearing a white tunic and a red cloak. A figure of repentance, Mary Magdalene prays, her eyes dazzled by the luminous apparition of a cross wearing a crown of thorns, captured in a moment of spiritual and sensual ecstasy. Her golden hair, whose heavy mass appears at the top of the head, spreads on her shoulder and chest. Livid, the skin tones present admirable variations of color and light as shadows dominate by their intensity.

The modeling of teeth and tears running down Magdalene’s cheek are characteristic of Caravaggio as is the ear, indistinctly outlined under a carefully calculated light. The long folds of the shirt are achieved with a single broad, vigorous and free brushstroke; in the background, we can see in the darkness an entrance to a cave. A skull sustains Magdalene’s arm, signifying her departure from a life of sin.

Putting together all the data from infrared investigations, acquired through our Apollo camera, and ultraviolet imaging, gives us additional information and seems to further confirms the attribution: The half-lying body of the Magdalene is not, as it appears, wrapped in a dark mass, but rests on some sort of rocks. She is framed inside a cave, whose opening is enriched by leaves and vegetation, clearly standing out in the upper left corner. Perhaps not entirely convinced of what he was doing, the artist used a light brushstroke, later deciding to hide these elements under a dark layer. Maurizio Calvesi interpreted the black background as darkness, “a symbol of evil and sin”, while the light that floods the female figure symbolizes redemption.

Certain parts, like the hair, are left in reserve and are almost not painted at all, only characterized by light reflections. We note a complete absence of preparatory drawing, with color being directly applied to the canvas. Sources state that Caravaggio did not draw but rather directly applied color to the canvas by copying from life: the frequent modifications made by Caravaggio on other of his works during the painted phase are well documented by X-ray and IR analysis and seem to confirm this fact.

The IR reflectography highlights however the presence of dark lines, preliminary to the painting, which define the profile of some elements of the composition. These lines are quite wide and compatible with a brush soaked in a dark pigment and outline the fingers of the right hand, the lower part of the left hand and wrist, the main folds of the red coat, the right shoulder and the white shirt on the right elbow. The irregularities of the surface that could suggest the use of incisions, noticeable above all for the white shirt, are actually to be attributed to the traces of the bristles of the brush.

The shape of the mouth appears to have changed during the painted phase, with a reduction of the lower lip. Changes also affect the red mantle, around the large fold near the right side, where the X-ray shows a distribution of radiopacity that is not in line with the currently visible chiaroscuro trend. More difficult to interpret is the trace of the same radiopacity of the red mantle extending from the right side, almost horizontally, towards the left edge of the canvas.

In this painting, as in the others by Caravaggio, there is art but there is also life; there is not only a formal and figurative realism, but above all, a ‘realism of feelings’, which is the great novelty of Caravaggio, especially in comparison with manneristic feelings, which were predefined. It is a deep sentimental and emotional realism because the painter identifies with the sentiment, with the psychological situation and there is this ability to represent and transmit these feelings in painting, strongly affecting us and thus allowing us to receive these emotions.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Mary Magdalene in Ecstasy, c. 1606, oil on canvas, private collection.